A Competition Law Assessment of Entry Barriers in Digital Markets with an Emphasis on the Role of Big Data

Document Type : Scientific research

Authors

ebrahim rahbari ^{1 ¶}

reyhaneh khalili ²

¹ Associate Professor of Intellectual Property Rights and Cyberspace Department, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

² PHD Candidate Private Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

https://doi.org/10.22067/economlaw.2026.96610.1501

Abstract

Digital markets, due to increasing data concentration and the central role of big data in competitive processes, face emerging and complex barriers to entry. Unequal access to vast datasets, along with differences in the ability to analyze and exploit them, creates monopolistic advantages for established firms while imposing significant constraints on market entrants. From this perspective, entry barriers in digital markets are not purely economic; they result from the interplay of technical, behavioral, and structural factors that, alongside legal constraints, hinder the realization of effective competition. This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach to analyze the nature and function of entry barriers in digital markets, examines the role of big data in creating and reinforcing these barriers, and evaluates the legal frameworks capable of mitigating them. The findings indicate that effective regulation of data access and sharing, mandatory technical interoperability among platforms, and support for innovation by start-ups are among the most important legal tools for reducing concentration and promoting competition in digital markets. Ultimately, it is emphasized that a precise definition of entry barriers and the formulation of binding data-related rules can facilitate the achievement of fair competition and sustainable digital markets within the Iranian legal system.

Keywords

Big Data

Entry Barriers

Data Access

Interoperability

Market Power

Subjects

• Competition Law

---

References

[1] Bara, M. (2025). Accessibility Barriers in Multi-Terabyte Public Datasets: The Gap Between Promise and Practice, 1-5.

[2] Bourreau, M., de Streel, A. (2019). Digital Conglomerates and EU Competition Policy. Telecom ParisTech, CERRE, 1-44.

[3] Bourreau, M., Krämer, J., Buiten, M. (2022). Interoperability in Digital Markets. CERRE Report, 1-53.

[4] Casanova, J. (2016). Online Search Engine Competition with First-Mover Advantages. Journal of Competition Law & Economics, 12(1), 1-61.

[5] Centre for Information Policy Leadership (CIPL). (2024). Data Minimization in the United States’ Emerging Privacy Landscape: Discussion Paper.

[6] Clifford Chance. (2025). Data Privacy Legal Trends 2025: Client Briefing Report, 1-8.

[7] EDPS. (2021). AEPD-EDPS joint paper on 10 misunderstandings related to anonymization.

[8] Evans, D. S. (2013). Attention Rivalry Among Online Platforms. University of Chicago Institute for Law & Economics Olin Research Paper No. 627, 1-44.

[9] Fletcher, A. (2021). Digital Competition Policy: Are Ecosystems Different? Hearing on Competition Economics of Digital Ecosystems, OECD, Paris, 1-13.

[10] Gabriel, N. (2021). Taking It with You: Platform Barriers to Entry and the Limits of Data Portability. Michigan Technology Law Review, 27, 263-298.

[11] Gal, M., Rubinfeld, D. L. (2015). The Hidden Costs of Free Goods: Implications for Antitrust Enforcement. Antitrust Law Journal, 80(3), 1-59.

[12] Giannaccari, A. (2018). The Big Data Competition Story: Theoretical Approaches and the First Enforcement Cases. EUI Department of Law Research Paper No. 2018/10, 1-25.

[13] Garfinkel, S. L. (2015). De-Identification of Personal Information. NIST IR 8053, 1-46.

[14] Jenny, F. (2021). Competition Law Enforcement and Regulation for Digital Ecosystems: Understanding the Issues, Facing the Challenges and Moving Forward. OECD Competition Committee Discussion Paper, 1-39.

[15] Mancini, J., et al. (2016). Abuse of Dominance in Digital Markets. Competition Policy International, 1-87.

[16] McAfee, A. P., Brynjolfsson, E. (2012). Big Data: The Management Revolution. Harvard Business Review, 90(10), 59-69.

[17] Mercatus Center. (2025). Is Data Really a Barrier to Entry? Rethinking Competition Regulation in Generative AI. Working Paper, 1-25.

[18] Montjoye, Y-A., Schweitzer, H., Crémer, J. (2020). Competition Policy for the Digital Era. European Commission, 1-127.

[19] OECD. (2024). The Intersection between Competition and Data Privacy. OECD Report, 1-40.

[20] O'Shaughnessy, K., Sokol, D. D., Phillips, J., Swire, N. (2016). Big Data, Little Chance of Success: Why Precedent Does Not Support Anti-Data Theories of Harm. Competition Policy International, 1-11/

[21] Pradeep, M., et al. (2025). Data Monopolies and Antitrust: Examining Big Tech's Role in Market Dynamics and Innovation. Journal of Marketing & Social Research, 2(2), 240-250.

[22] Prüfer, J., Schottmüller, C. (2021). Competing with Big Data. Journal of Industrial Economics, 69(4), 1-48.

[23] Rubinfeld, D. L., Gal, M. (2017). Access Barriers to Big Data. Arizona Law Review, 59, 1-47.

[24] Sgaramella, A. (2016). Big Data, Competition and Privacy. Competition Policy International, 13-22.

[25] Stucke, M. E., Grunes, A. P. (2016). Big Data and Competition Policy. Oxford University Press, 1-11.

[26] Van de Waerdt, P. (2023). Everything the Data Touches Is Our Kingdom: Market Power of Data Ecosystems. World Competition, 46(1), 65-98.

[27] Yun, J. M. (2019). Antitrust After Big Data. Criterion Journal on Innovation, 4, 406-429.

[28] Rahbari, E. (1401). An analysis of competition law challenges of big data. Journal of Legal Research, 25(98), 295-320. (In Persian)

[29] Rahbari, E. (1402). Competitive assessment of specific cases of abuse of dominant position through big data. Public Law Research, 25(81), 215-250. (In Persian)

[30] Rahbari, E. (1402). A reflection on the relationship between big data and market power in platform markets from the perspective of modern competition law developments. Quarterly Journal of Private Law Studies, 53(2), 205-228. (In Persian)